We offer Specific Learning Disorder Assessments that can uncover neurodevelopmental conditions that affect a person’s ability to acquire academic skills, such as reading, writing, or mathematics, despite normal intelligence and adequate educational opportunities. These lifelong conditions typically become apparent during school when a child’s academic performance does not meet their age and grade level expectations. However, some older adolescents and adults find that they have a previously undiagnosed SLD when they go to college or enter the workforce. The most common type of SLD testing is for a specific learning disorder with impairment in reading or a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression. These challenges can also affect math, which is called a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics.
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments Overview 
The three most common types of specific learning disorders are:
- Specific learning disorder with impairment in Reading (Dyslexia):
- Difficulty in reading accuracy, fluency, or comprehension.
- Problems with word recognition, decoding, and spelling.
- We offer testing for dyslexia for all ages
- Specific learning disorder with impairment in Written Expression (Dysgraphia):
- Difficulty with spelling, grammar, punctuation, and clarity of written work.
- Problems with organizing thoughts on paper or with the physical act of writing.
- We also offer testing for dysgraphia
- Specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics (Dyscalculia):
- Difficulty with number sense, calculation, or mathematical reasoning.
- Struggles with memorizing arithmetic facts, solving word problems, or understanding mathematical concepts.
- Dyscalculia testing is also a core area for us.
Causes of an SLD
Each SLD is believed to have a genetic basis, and neurobiological factors play a role. Brain imaging studies have shown differences in how the brain functions when processing language, numbers, and writing tasks in individuals with SLD. Environmental factors like prenatal exposure to toxins, premature birth, or very low birth weight can also contribute.
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments in Brief
SLD testing leads to a diagnosis based on clinical evaluation and academic performance testing. During specific Learning Disorder assessments, It is important to differentiate an SLD from other issues like intellectual disabilities, lack of educational opportunities, or other mental health conditions. The diagnostic process typically involves:
- Observation of learning difficulties – a teacher or parent observes that the child seems to have a specific weakness that is contradicted by performance in other areas. This is often what leads to specific learning disorder assessments.
- Standardized cognitive testing is part of most specific learning disorder assessments.
- Standardized academic achievement tests are also a core part of specific learning disorder assessments.
- Mental health testing to rule out other causes, such as anxiety assessments.
- Review of the child’s educational history.
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments Role in Treatment
SLD is managed with specialized educational strategies, such as individualized education plans (IEPs) and targeted interventions:
- Educational Support: Specific learning disorder assessments might suggest tutors, special education services, and academic accommodations like extra time on tests.
- Assistive Technology: Software for reading, speech-to-text, or math problem-solving tools.
- Therapies: Speech therapy or occupational therapy may be necessary, especially in cases of a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression.
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments and Prognosis
With early intervention, proper support, and sometimes academic or occupational accommodations, many people with an SLD can achieve academic success and thrive in their chosen careers. Specific learning disorder assessments can provide insight and advice that helps..
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments in Practice
SLD testing involves a comprehensive evaluation process that examines a person’s academic performance, cognitive abilities, and developmental history to determine if there is a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression, reading, or math. The goal of SLD testing is to identify whether the individual’s difficulties are due to a learning disorder rather than other factors like intellectual disabilities, emotional issues, or insufficient educational opportunities.
Steps in Specific Learning Disorder Assessments
- SLD Testing Referral and Screening
The SLD testing process often starts when a teacher, parent, or person themself notices that the child (or adult) is struggling significantly with cognitive tasks compared to peers. The individual may be referred for further assessment, which usually begins with a screening or informal observation. We often become involved at this point, providing a free consultation. - Comprehensive Assessment Formal SLD testing typically includes several components:
- Cognitive (IQ) Testing:
Measures the person’s overall intellectual abilities to ensure that their difficulties are not due to a general intellectual disability. The most commonly used test in specific learning disorder assessments is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) or similar versions for adults. - Academic Achievement Tests:
These specific learning disorder assessments assess specific areas of academic skill, such as:- Reading (decoding, fluency, comprehension):
Examples: Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT). - Writing (spelling, grammar, composition):
Examples: Test of Written Language (TOWL). - Math (calculation, problem-solving):
Examples: KeyMath Diagnostic Assessment, Woodcock-Johnson Math Subtests.
- Reading (decoding, fluency, comprehension):
- Cognitive (IQ) Testing:
- Additional Tests (if needed) Based on initial findings, further testing may be done to understand more about the individual’s specific difficulties, such as:
- Phonological Processing Tests: For SLD testing when reading difficulties are suspected (possible dyslexia).
- Visual-Motor Integration Tests: For SLD testing based on writing challenges (possible dysgraphia).
- Memory, Attention, and Executive Function Tests: To rule out other causes like ADHD.
- Developmental, Medical, and Educational History A thorough review of the individual’s history before SLD testing is crucial to understanding their difficulties. This includes:
- Family history of learning disorders.
- Medical history (e.g., birth complications, head injuries).
- Developmental milestones (speech, motor skills).
- Educational background (early literacy exposure, school performance, interventions received).
- Observation and Teacher/Parent Input Teacher, parent, and caregiver input is essential for children during SLD testing. They can provide detailed information about the individual’s learning patterns, behaviors in various settings, and responses to previous interventions or support. Adults can self-report.
- Comparison to Age/Grade Norms Results of specific learning disorder assessments are compared to norms for individuals of the same age and grade to identify whether the academic skills are significantly below expected levels. For a diagnosis of SLD, the individual’s academic performance must be notably below their intellectual ability and not better explained by other factors (e.g., lack of instruction, sensory impairments).
SLD Testing and Diagnoses
- After specific learning disorder assessments, a diagnosis of SLD can be made if there is a significant discrepancy between the individual’s IQ and their achievement in a particular academic area (e.g., writing for a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression), along with signs that the learning problems persist despite appropriate instruction and interventions.
- Diagnostic criteria for SLD are outlined in the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). The diagnosis will specify whether the disorder affects reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia), or mathematics (dyscalculia).
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments Results and Recommendations
SLD testing results will guide the development of an intervention plan, such as an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or 504 Plan in schools. These plans can provide accommodations and specific strategies to support the individual’s learning or testing accommodations. For adults, they can guide job accommodations.
Testing for a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading
Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading is commonly referred to as dyslexia. This condition affects an individual’s ability to read accurately and fluently, making it difficult to recognize words, decode text, and understand what they read.
Example of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading
Sarah, an 8-year-old girl in third grade, is referred for SLD testing because has always struggled with reading. Despite being intelligent and curious, she has trouble keeping up with her classmates during reading activities. Sarah’s teacher and parents notice the following:
Symptoms and Signs of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading
- Difficulty with Word Recognition:
- Sarah struggles to recognize simple words she’s seen before. For example, she might read the word “cat” correctly one day, but not the next. This is a hallmark of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading in younger children.
- Slow and Labored Reading:
- When asked to read aloud, Sarah reads very slowly and pauses frequently. She often mispronounces words or guesses at them based on the first letter (e.g., reading “house” as “horse”). This is also common in a specific learning disorder with impairment in reading.
- Poor Phonological Awareness:
- She has difficulty breaking down words into their component sounds (phonemes). For instance, she can’t easily identify the individual sounds in the word “bat” (/b/ /a/ /t/) or blend sounds to form words.
- Frequent Reversals or Letter Confusion:
- Sarah frequently mixes up letters that look similar, such as “b” and “d” or “p” and “q”. She also sometimes writes words backward or reverses the order of letters in a word (e.g., writing “was” as “saw”). While normal in younger children, if this issue persists, it is a sign of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading.
- Reading Avoidance:
- Sarah has started to avoid reading altogether. She feels frustrated and anxious when asked to read, often complaining of stomachaches or headaches before reading lessons. THis is a common effect of a specific learning disorder with impairment in reading.
- Difficulty with Spelling:
- Her spelling is inconsistent and often inaccurate. Even simple words are misspelled in unpredictable ways (e.g., “friend” might become “frend” or “freind”).
- Comprehension Issues:
- Although Sarah can understand stories and explanations when they are read aloud to her, she struggles to comprehend what she reads on her own. This impacts her ability to answer questions about the text and affects her performance in subjects that require reading.
Assessment of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading
Sarah’s parents refer her for an evaluation by us for a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading. We conduct:
- Reading Tests: Sarah is asked to read passages aloud and silently. She shows significant difficulty in decoding words, reading fluently, and understanding what she reads.
- Phonological Processing Tests: These reveal that Sarah has difficulty identifying sounds in words, which is a key component of dyslexia.
- Cognitive Testing: Her IQ is in the average range, meaning her reading struggles are not due to low overall intelligence.
- Achievement Tests: The results show that Sarah’s reading ability is well below the expected level for her age and grade.
Based on the assessments, Sarah is diagnosed with Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading (Dyslexia). Our report suggests specific accommodations for the classroom and extra time on the SAT she might do later.
Intervention and Support
More specifically, our psychological testing report suggests:
- Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Sarah’s school creates an IEP based on her specific learning disorder with impairment in reading to provide her with extra support. This plan includes:
- Reading Interventions: Sarah receives daily one-on-one sessions with a reading specialist, focusing on phonics (connecting letters to sounds) and building her decoding skills that are part of her specific learning disorder with impairment in reading.
- Accommodations: Sarah is given extra time on reading tasks and tests. She is also provided with audiobooks and text-to-speech software to help her access grade-level content without relying solely on her reading ability.
- Multi-Sensory Learning Approaches: Programs like the Orton-Gillingham approach are used for a specific learning disorder with impairment in reading. These involve multi-sensory techniques (using sight, sound, touch, and movement) to help Sarah learn to read more effectively.
- Assistive Technology:
- Sarah starts using a speech-to-text program for writing assignments, allowing her to express her ideas without worrying about spelling mistakes. She also uses text-to-speech software that reads digital text aloud to her.
- Parental Involvement: Sarah’s parents work closely with her teacher and tutor to reinforce her reading skills at home. They read aloud to her, encourage her to practice with interesting books and celebrate her progress toward overcoming her specific learning disorder with impairment in reading.
Long-Term Outlook
With the right support for her specific learning disorder with impairment in reading, Sarah gradually improves her reading skills. Although her specific learning disorder with impairment in reading may persist, and she may always find reading more challenging than her peers, the strategies and tools she learns help her succeed in school and develop confidence in her abilities. Over time, Sarah becomes more comfortable with reading. She finds ways to compensate for her specific learning disorder with impairment in reading, allowing her to pursue her interests in science and art.
Testing for a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression
A specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression, often referred to as dysgraphia, is a condition that affects a person’s ability to write, including difficulties with spelling, grammar, punctuation, handwriting, and organizing thoughts on paper. While intelligence and cognitive functioning may be normal or above average, the individual struggles specifically in writing tasks, which can interfere with academic performance and day-to-day activities.
Example of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression
Liam, a 10-year-old boy in fifth grade, has always been bright and articulate, performing well in verbal discussions. However, when it comes to writing tasks, Liam struggles significantly so he is referred for SLD testing. His teacher and parents notice the following:
Symptoms and Signs of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression
- Messy or Illegible Handwriting:
- Liam’s handwriting is inconsistent and often hard to read. Letters may be poorly formed, uneven in size, or improperly spaced. For example, he might write a sentence where the words are crammed together, making it difficult to decipher. This may not have been a sign of a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression when he was younger, but now that it lags peers his teachers are concerned.
- Difficulty with Spelling:
- Despite knowing the correct spelling of words when asked orally, Liam struggles to spell them correctly when writing. He often leaves out letters, substitutes incorrect letters, or writes words phonetically (e.g., spelling “school” as “skool”). This is a hallmark of a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression.
- Trouble with Grammar and Punctuation:
- Liam has difficulty using proper grammar and punctuation when writing. His sentences may lack capitalization, commas, or periods. For instance, he might write: “the dog ran fast it was hot outside” instead of “The dog ran fast. It was hot outside.” Again, while not necessarily a problem when he was younger, the fact that he is now lagging peers is a sign of a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression.
- Writing Avoidance:
- Liam avoids writing whenever possible, becoming frustrated and anxious when asked to complete writing assignments. He may rush through them, leading to even more errors, or ask to type instead of handwriting.
- Difficulty Organizing Thoughts:
- Even though Liam can express his thoughts clearly in conversation, he struggles to organize them on paper. His essays or stories may lack structure, jumping from one idea to another without clear transitions. One reason for this sign is the fatigue caused by the physical effects of a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression.
- Physical Discomfort:
- Liam often complains that his hand hurts after writing for just a short period. He holds his pencil awkwardly, gripping it too tightly, and tires easily during longer writing tasks.
- Slow Writing Speed:
- Compared to his classmates, Liam writes very slowly. Completing writing assignments takes him much longer than it should, and due to his slow pace, he often cannot finish tests or homework on time.
Assessment and Diagnosis of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Writing
Liam’s parents and teacher noticed his consistent struggles with writing and referred him for an evaluation for a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression. During the assessment, we take the following steps:
- Cognitive Testing:
- Liam’s cognitive abilities are tested using an IQ test like the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), which shows that his intelligence is in the average range, ruling out intellectual disabilities as the cause of his difficulties.
- Academic Achievement Tests:
- Liam is given writing assessments, such as the Test of Written Language (TOWL), which reveal that his ability to express himself in writing is well below what is expected for his age and grade level. He has significant trouble with spelling, grammar, punctuation, and organizing his writing.
- Handwriting and Fine Motor Skills Tests:
- His handwriting is evaluated using tests like the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI), which shows that his fine motor skills and visual-motor integration are below average, contributing to his difficulties in forming letters and writing legibly.
- Teacher and Parent Feedback:
- Input from Liam’s teacher and parents about his classroom performance and behaviors supports the diagnosis. They report his struggles with both the mechanical aspects of writing (e.g., handwriting) and the expressive aspects (e.g., organizing thoughts, grammar).
Based on the comprehensive assessment, Liam is diagnosed with Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Written Expression (Dysgraphia).
Intervention and Support
- Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Liam’s school develops an IEP based on teacher observations and the details in our report to address his specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression. The plan includes:
- Specialized Instruction: Liam works with a special education teacher or tutor who uses multi-sensory techniques to help him improve his handwriting, spelling, and writing organization.
- Accommodations: Liam is given extended time on written assignments and tests. He can use a computer to type his work, which helps reduce the physical strain of handwriting caused by the specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression and improves his overall writing quality.
- Assistive Technology: Tools like speech-to-text software allow Liam to dictate his thoughts, reducing the pressure on his writing mechanics and allowing him to focus on content.
- Occupational Therapy: Since Liam’s fine motor skills are weak, he begins working with an occupational therapist who helps him improve his pencil grip, hand strength, and motor coordination. The therapist also introduces strategies to help him form letters more consistently.
- Writing Strategies and Organizational Support:
- Liam is taught specific strategies for organizing his writing, such as using graphic organizers, outlines, or sentence starters to help him plan his work before he starts writing.
- He is encouraged to break writing tasks into smaller steps and to revise his work for spelling and grammar after writing down his ideas.
- Keyboarding and Typing Skills:
- Since Liam finds handwriting difficult, he is encouraged to develop his keyboarding skills. Typing helps him produce more legible work and allows him to use tools like spell-check, which reduces his frustration with spelling errors.
- Emotional Support:
- Liam’s parents and teachers encourage him to build confidence in writing. They recognize his efforts to overcome aspects of his specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression and emphasize his strengths in other areas, like oral communication and creativity, to balance his frustrations with writing tasks.
Long-Term Outlook
With ongoing support and intervention, Liam’s writing skills gradually improve. While he may always struggle with some aspects of his specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression, the tools and strategies he learns help him become more efficient and successful in his schoolwork. As he progresses through school, Liam relies on assistive technology and accommodations to help him manage his specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression, allowing him to express his ideas more clearly and with less frustration.
Assessment of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Mathematics
A Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Mathematics, often referred to as dyscalculia, involves significant difficulty with numerical skills, such as understanding numbers, performing arithmetic calculations, and grasping mathematical concepts. To diagnose a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, a comprehensive evaluation process is required to assess the individual’s struggles with math while ruling out other possible causes, like general intellectual disabilities or poor educational opportunities.
Steps in Testing for Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Mathematics
- Referral and Screening
- Testing usually begins when teachers, parents, or adults themselves notice consistent math struggles that are disproportionate to the efforts or compared to peers. A referral is made for formal assessment for a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, especially when basic math skills (e.g., understanding numbers or solving simple arithmetic problems) lag far behind the expected level.
- Comprehensive Assessment: We do formal testing to assess cognitive abilities and specific mathematical skills. The tests include:
- Cognitive Assessment (IQ Test):
- The evaluator will typically start with an IQ test, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), to assess the child’s overall intellectual functioning. This helps rule out intellectual disabilities as a cause of the math struggles.
- For a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics diagnosis, the individual must have normal or above-average intelligence with a specific weakness in mathematical ability.
- Mathematics Achievement Tests: These tests specifically assess the individual’s performance in math. They evaluate different aspects of mathematical skills that are often impaired with a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, including:
- Number Sense: Understanding basic concepts like quantity, numerical order, and comparison.
- Calculation Skills: Performing arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division).
- Mathematical Reasoning: Solving word problems and applying logic to math-related situations.
- Mathematical Fluency Tests: Tests like the Test of Mathematical Abilities (TOMA) may also be used to measure the speed and accuracy of basic math calculations, such as how quickly an individual can solve simple addition or subtraction problems.
- Cognitive Assessment (IQ Test):
- Additional Cognitive and Processing Tests We may administer additional tests to assess skills that contribute to math learning and might show signs of a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, such as:
- Working Memory Tests: Working memory plays a crucial role in solving multi-step math problems. Tests may be used to evaluate the ability to hold numbers in memory while performing calculations.
- Visual-Spatial Skills Tests: Since many math concepts require visualizing shapes, patterns, or spatial relationships, tests like the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) may be administered to assess visual-spatial skills.
- Developmental and Educational History: We gather a detailed developmental history, medical background, and education. This includes:
- Early exposure to math skills and the child’s progress in learning basic number concepts.
- Any history of delays in language or motor development that could affect learning.
- A review of the child’s performance in math classes and any previous interventions or support.
- Teacher and Parent Input For children, input from teachers and parents is essential for understanding the child’s behavior and performance in real-world settings.
- Observation of the Child: Also for children, direct observation of the child’s approach to math tasks may provide valuable insights. As part of this SLD testing we might observe how the child attempts to solve problems, such as whether they:
- Skip steps in multi-step problems.
- Struggle with simple operations like addition or subtraction.
- Have difficulty grasping abstract concepts like fractions or geometry.
Diagnosis of a Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Math
After completing the assessment, the results are compared to age and grade-level expectations. For a diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Mathematics (Dyscalculia):
- For a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, the person must have significant and persistent difficulties in math that are well below the expected level for their age and grade (or prior academic achievement for adults).
- The difficulties must not be due to general intellectual disabilities, lack of adequate instruction, or other factors like visual or hearing impairments.
The diagnosis of a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics is made according to the criteria outlined in the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). The diagnosis of a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics can specify the areas of difficulty.
Intervention and Support
Once the diagnosis of a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics is made after SLD testing, the child will typically receive support through an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or 504 Plan in school. The plan may include:
- Specialized Math Instruction: Focused remediation to build foundational math skills, often using multi-sensory techniques that help the child better understand math concepts to overcome that aspect of their specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics.
- Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Mathematics Accommodations: Extended time for math tests, use of a calculator for basic arithmetic, or breaking down problems into smaller steps.
- Assistive Technology: Tools like math software programs or visual aids (e.g., number lines, charts) can help the child understand and apply math concepts can be helpful with certain aspects of a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics.
- Tutoring or Small Group Instruction: Additional support from a math tutor or special education teacher who uses individualized strategies to address the child’s specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics.
For adults, the diagnosis of a specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics can lead to workplace accommodations, graduate school or exam accommodations, or self-help ideas for day-to-day mathematical tasks.
Our SLD Testing Work
This post provides information about the specific learning disorder assessments we provide, and we also have specific posts about testing for specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, reading, and writing. We can provide testing for specific learning disorder with impairment in reading, writing, or math virtually:
We also provide testing for sensory processing disorders.
Specific Learning Disorder Assessments in Our Practice
We’d be happy to discuss how specific learning disorder assessments could benefit you or a loved one who may have a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression, reading, or math. Don’t hesitate to contact us or schedule a consultation anytime with questions about SLD testing.
